Al Reguel Ajat

From the beginning of Rabbinic Judaism until the mid-20th century, all rabbis had been men. This changed with the arrival of liberal movements, which began ordaining women rabbis institutionally since 1972, when the first female Reform rabbi was ordained. Reconstructionist and Conservative Judaism followed suit a few years later.

The Orthodox movement has completely opposed accepting that a woman can be a rabbi. But in recent years, changes have begun to occur in this branch of Judaism. Although the term orthodox means «one who faithfully follows the principles of a doctrine,» voices of change have emerged within the Orthodox community in recent times. One such voice is that of Abraham «Avi» Weiss, a Modern Orthodox rabbi who received his degree from Yeshivah University.

Weiss coined the term «Open Orthodoxy» in 1997 to describe a form of Orthodoxy that, while maintaining its complete adherence to Halacha, is intellectually open to the secular world, cares for all Jews regardless of their religious affiliation or observance, and seeks to give women a greater role in religious practice. In 1999, after resigning as a teacher at Yeshivah University, Avi Weiss founded Yeshivah Chovevei Torah to train Orthodox rabbis with this new approach. In 2006, Weiss sought recognition from the Rabbinical Council of America, the umbrella organization for Modern Orthodox rabbis, but was unsuccessful.

In 2009, she founded the Yeshivat Maharat to train women to be “maharat,” the acronym for “Manhigah Halachtit Ruchanit Toranit,” which in Hebrew means “Leader in Torah, Halacha, and Spirituality,” a term coined to refer to women trained as rabbis. Sara Hurwitz was the first woman to be ordained a “maharat,” and in 2010 she changed her title to “Rabba.” This movement has also taken place in Israel. In 2015, Jennie Rosenfeld became the first Orthodox woman to lead the Efrat community as a “manhiga ruchanit,” or spiritual leader.

Another change promoted by Open Orthodoxy is the “partnership minyan,” a prayer group that maximizes the participation of women. In these groups, having a minyan involves having both ten men and ten women to pray. This began in 2002 in the United States and Israel. The “social minyan” is a group committed to observing halacha, which is why it has a mechitzah that separates men and women and prays according to Orthodox rules, but allows women to read the Torah, receive aliyah, and pray Psukei D’zimrah.

Avi Weiss tells us: “Open Orthodox Judaism seeks to include women more in rituals and spiritual leadership, to be more inclusive of those with different sexual preferences, and to be more inclusive and facilitate those who want to convert to Judaism. They seek to engage in dialogue with Jews of other denominations and even with people of other religions.” Rabbi David Hartman said: “I grew up in a home where to be pious I didn’t need someone to hate, where I felt close to God without having to say, ‘I don’t like him, I won’t go to his shul’” [synagogue in Yiddish]. It is the difference between Noah’s ark, closed and isolated, and the tent of our patriarchs Abraham and Sarah, open on all four sides.

By: Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Articles by Avi Weiss, David Suissa, Moshe Averick, and other sources.

The Torah is very clear in its prohibition against eating chametz or mixtures containing chametz, against possessing chametz in our homes, and against removing chametz from our homes during the celebration of the Passover holiday. This is stated in several Torah verses in Exodus and Deuteronomy.

Eating chametz means eating leavened food. Leavening is making a mixture made from flour from certain grains lighten and soften as a result of incorporating bubbles into the dough. This is achieved by mixing in chemicals such as starch, baking soda, and others, called yeast, but it is also achieved by adding water to the flour and waiting for its starches to naturally produce carbon dioxide bubbles that cause the dough to «rise.» As the bread or whatever is being prepared dries, the gaps formed by the bubbles remain, creating that spongy consistency. Our sages specify that a mixture of flour and water begins to rise after 18 minutes. Therefore, making matza, which is made by mixing water with wheat flour, requires immediate oven baking.

The rabbis in the Mishnah describe five types of grains that, when water is added, can rise. Originally, these were grains indigenous to the land of Israel. But when the Jews were exiled to European lands, the list was expanded to include grains found in Europe: wheat, barley, rye, oats, and spelt (a type of wheat). According to the Talmud, any grain not included in this list, when water is added and left unfinished, rots rather than rising.

Among Ashkenazi Jews, it is customary that on Passover, they not only avoid eating products made from the five grains, but also other grains or legumes, which in Hebrew we call kitniyot, literally «small things.» Depending on the community, the list of kitniyot includes rice, corn, lentils, millet, beans, and even peanuts. Rabbi David Golinkin, in a responsa, tells us that this custom was first mentioned in France and Provence in the 13th century by Rabbis Asher of Lunel, Samuel of Falaise, and Peretz of Korebeil. From there, the custom spread to other countries, and the list of kitniyot, or prohibited foods, grew longer. In any case, the reason for prohibiting the eating of kitniyot was unknown, so the rabbis began to invent explanations for why.

There are up to twelve different explanations, which can be summarized in one: the grains and flour of kitniyot could be confused and/or mixed with the five forbidden grains. Reb Samuel of Falasia refers to it as a mistaken custom, and Reb Yeruham called it a foolish custom. Sephardic Jews do not observe the custom of not eating kitniyot. There is really only one reason to observe this custom: the desire to preserve an old custom. Ashkenazi Orthodox rabbis insist on preserving it, while Conservative and Reform rabbis have rejected it.

This insistence on preserving the custom has further complicated the observance of kashrut on Passover, as there are now kosher products for Passover for people who do eat kitniyot and others for those who don’t.Not eating kitniyot is an example of how an inexplicable custom eventually becomes law. And it also divides us. That’s why I believe we can all eat rice on Passover.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Rabbi David Golinkin: Rice, beans, and kitniyot on Passover – are they really forbidden?

Regina Jonas was born in Berlin in 1902. Her father, a merchant, was probably her first teacher. Her passion for Jewish history, the Bible, and Hebrew was evident from high school, where her classmates remember her talking about becoming a rabbi. She was particularly supported in this by Orthodox Rabbi Max Weil, with whom she met once a week to study rabbinic literature. In 1923, she passed her baccalaureate exam and entered a teachers’ seminary, which allowed her to teach Jewish religion in girls’ schools in Berlin.

In 1924, she enrolled in the Higher School of the Science of Judaism. Jonas was the only student aspiring to be ordained as a rabbi. Her classmates only aspired to become teachers. Eduardo Baneth, a Talmud professor at the Higher School, was her thesis supervisor. The topic was: «Can a woman hold the position of rabbi?» Her work (1930) was the first attempt to find a halachic basis for ordaining women as rabbis.

In her thesis, Jonas combined halachic argumentation with a modern attitude. She did not follow the reformist position that had abandoned halacha. She preferred to seek gender equality in traditional Jewish sources. The female rabbinate should be understood as a continuation of tradition. With this, Jonas broke away from both the Orthodox position, which did not accept gender equality on this issue, and the reformist position, which claimed to be the sole defender of women’s rights. On the last page, she wrote: «Nothing halachic, only prejudice and lack of familiarity, prevents a woman from serving as a rabbi.»

Her thesis received a grade of «Good.» Her teacher, Eduardo Baneth, died shortly afterward, and his successor, Hanokh Albeck, was unwilling to ordain her, so Regina graduated as a religion teacher. She worked in several girls’ schools. Nevertheless, she did not give up her efforts to be ordained as a rabbi. Finally, in 1935, Rabbi Max Dienemann, executive director of the Conference of Liberal Rabbis, agreed to ordain her. Her diploma read: «In view of the fact that I have seen that your heart is with God and Israel, that you dedicate your soul to that end, that you respect God, and that you have passed the examination in matters of religious law, I therefore certify that you are qualified to answer questions on religious law and are entitled to hold the title of rabbi, and may God protect and guide you in all your path.»

Few Regina was able to practice as a rabbi for years. She was employed as a rabbinical pastoral counselor in 1937 by the Jewish community of Berlin. She began preaching in liberal synagogues until 1942, when she and her mother were deported to the Theresienstadt concentration camp. On October 12, 1944, they were deported to Auschwitz, where they were murdered that same day. A handwritten document entitled «Sermons by the only female rabbi Regina Jonas» is preserved in the Terezin archives. It was signed: «Rabbi Regina Jonas, originally from Berlin.»

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Fräulein Rabbiner Jonas, by Elisa Klapheck and other sources.

In Parasha Beshalach, the Torah tells us that when the Israelites finally reached the Red Sea, they realized that Pharaoh and his army were pursuing them. They were trapped between Pharaoh’s army and the sea. But God told Moses to raise his staff above the water, and then the sea parted to let the children of Israel pass and then closed over the Egyptians, drowning them. As soon as the Israelites crossed the sea, they quickly forgot their good fortune and began to complain about the lack of water and food. They said that slavery in Egypt was preferable to their new situation. God, through Moses, brought water from a rock and made manna fall from the sky.

The Midrash Shmot Rabbah questions the children of Israel’s claims and asks: Have you forgotten all the miracles God performed for you? Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson tells us: “Clearly, it seems that miracles were not an effective way to instill an awareness of God. In fact, the entire Bible can be read as a book that narrates how difficult it was to teach man proper behavior.” Consider this, Rabbi Artson tells us: “First, God addressed the problem with a garden of paradise. Adam and Eve disobeyed Him anyway. Then He sent the flood. This also failed. The people continued to act violently. Then God enslaved the Hebrews, sent them a liberator, and redeemed them from Egypt. Even so, after the ten plagues and the parting of the sea, the Hebrews remained a stubborn people. At Sinai, He gave them instructions on how to behave according to the commandments of the Torah, and the Israelites ignored them. God sent prophets with their vision, and the Jews rebelled against them. It seems that miracles don’t work. Initially, people marvel at them and then forget them.”

Rabbi Bradley continues: “Reforming human character requires much more than “special effects,” like in the movies, even if they are miracles of divine origin. Transforming human behavior requires constant and gradual education, with reinforcement, discipline, and a community.” Change is achieved with small actions. It’s not external miracles that make the change. If that were the case, with a word from God, people would change. God doesn’t seek to perform great miracles for the sake of performing them; what He wants is for people to change for themselves.

Ahad Ha-am explains it differently: “In this hour of happiness, Moses’ heart overflows with emotion and pours out into a song. He doesn’t know that he is still at the beginning of his journey; he doesn’t know that the true task, the most difficult task, has yet to begin. Pharaoh is gone, but his work remains; the master is no longer the master, but the slaves have not ceased to be slaves. A people formed for generations in the house of slavery cannot in an instant cast off the effects of that formation and become truly free, even when the chains have been torn away.” The important thing was not the miracle of the parting of the sea, but rather the initiation of the inner change within each person who left Egypt.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: “The Bedside Torah” by Rabbi Bradley Shavit Artson and other sources.

Hanukkah is the Jewish festival that originally commemorated the rededication of the Temple in Jerusalem in 165 BCE, during the Maccabean Revolt against the Greek Seleucid Empire. Chapter 4 of the First Book of Maccabees, which was not included in the Jewish Bible, tells how Judah and his brothers, after defeating the Greeks, entered the Temple, rebuilt the altar, and lit the lamps. They decreed that the rededication of the Temple was to be celebrated for eight days, every 25th of the month of Kislev. Hanukkah in Hebrew means «to inaugurate.»

At first, the celebration included sacrifices in the Temple and banquets. But in the first century BCE, people spontaneously began to commemorate it by lighting lamps. Almost five centuries later, in the Talmud’s Shabbath tractate (21b), our sages explain that the Greeks had desecrated the oil used in the temple lights, and that the Maccabees found only one container of oil bearing the High Priest’s seal, but only enough for one day. They lit the light, and the miracle was that the oil lasted eight days. With this, the rabbis shifted the emphasis of the festival from a celebration of a military victory to commemorating a miracle of God. Some scholars explain this as a response to the new Roman rule, which viewed with suspicion the celebration of a revolt against a foreign empire.

Since lighting candles on Hanukkah had become popular, the rabbis in the Gemara (Talmud) began to define the basic ritual of the festival: when, how many, and on what days the lights are lit, where they are placed, and what they signify. At first, only one light was lit each night. The sages considered this sufficient to fulfill the mitzvah. They sought to ensure that everyone participated in the festival, and poor people could not light many candles each day. Later, some began to light more than one, first for each family member and then according to the days of the festival. They also defined where to place the candelabra, the blessings to be said, and the prohibition against using the light from the luminaries for everyday activities. To avoid violating this precept, they recommended lighting an additional luminary. This was the beginning of the use of the shamash, which became popular in medieval times.

In the 4th century, Rava, one of the sages of the Talmud, insisted that the Hanukkah candelabra had to be something different. Until that time, household luminaries were usually used, which were arranged in a row to be lit each day. Rava decreed that the Hanukkah menorah should be a clearly identifiable object in a Jewish home. In the Middle Ages, it was established that the shamash had to be at a different height than the rest of the lights.

Hanukkah is more than the commemoration of a military victory or a miracle. It is a commemoration of the conflict that arose between the Jews who had copied Hellenistic customs and those who opposed them. Hanukkah is not the most important holiday in the Jewish calendar. Biblical holidays like Shabbat and Passover are much more significant. However, today, Hanukkah is perhaps the most recognized Jewish holiday in the world. The sad thing is that its fame is not due to its original content, but to how similar it is to the holiday the world celebrated at that time. It seems that now, through Hanukkah, some people want to continue copying the Greeks.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “The Biblical and Historical Background of the Jewish Holydays” by Abraham P. Bloch.

The origin of Modern Orthodox Judaism lies in late 18th and early 19th century Germany, where a group of traditional Jews, who accepted some of the new values ​​of the Enlightenment, defended the classical interpretation of Judaism. Their leaders had opposed the establishment of a new temple in Hamburg in 1819, promoted by Reform Jews, who did not consider it obligatory to observe the commandments of Jewish law, halakha. In that year, Rabbi Jacob Ettinger published a manifesto signed by 177 rabbis, condemning the changes made by the Reformists.

One of his students, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hisrch, believed that Judaism had to apply the principles of the Torah to the entire field of human experience, including secular disciplines. He called this “Torah im Derech Eretz”—“Torah and the ways (customs) of the land.” Although he insisted on strict adherence to Jewish beliefs and practices, he argued that Jews should integrate and influence the modern world and foster secular studies compatible with the Torah. This was not new; it had already happened before with Jews in Babylon and medieval Spain.

Its development in the United States is linked to the creation of the Jewish Theological Seminary, an initially Orthodox institution created as a traditional alternative to the Reformist approach. But in 1898, Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes and a group of rabbis broke away from the JTS and formed the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, the «OU.» The OU was soon recognized in the American Jewish community as the principal spokesperson for the Modern Orthodox movement. At the 1919 convention, 150 congregations, with 50,000 members, formed the OU.

In 1915, Yeshivah College, now Yeshivah University, was founded, and the OU has strongly supported it ever since. Yeshiva University is an educational institution that produces English-speaking, university-educated rabbis who serve the needs of Modern Orthodox congregations. The OU is a pro-Zionist organization that maintains relationships with non-Orthodox Jewish organizations and extends its work to non-Jewish communities. In 1920, the OU began monitoring kashrut as a nonprofit community activity.

The term Orthodox means «one who faithfully follows the principles of a doctrine» and began to be used in Judaism in the 19th century. The Orthodox maintain that they practice the original Judaism that has existed since its beginnings, while other denominations have departed from that path. They claim that Orthodox Judaism extends from the time of Moses to the present. This claim has been refuted by scholars who have shown that even the Judaism practiced in the Middle Ages bears little resemblance to what the Orthodox practice today. These, as a reaction to liberal movements, have made halakhic practice more rigorous than before, even in cases where the sages of the Talmud and previous generations took a more lenient stance. Furthermore, there are Orthodox practices that have no precedents in the past. Orthodoxy is undoubtedly modern.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Article by Michael Kress and other sources.

Haredi Judaism is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that broke away from modern secular culture. It emerged as one of the responses to the changes that the modern era imposed on Jews. The Haredim have maintained strict adherence to Jewish religious laws, segregating themselves from modern society. Haredi means in Hebrew: «the one who trembles» at the word of God.

Before Jewish emancipation, most Jews lived segregated in ghettos, where classical culture and religious observance were their only option. Rabbis such as Moses Shraiber, the Chatam Sofer, opposed any change in the practice of Judaism. In 1912, shortly after the 10th Zionist Congress, where funding for religious schools was voted down, the organization Agudath Israel was founded as a distinct alternative to the Mizrahi religious Zionist movement. Agudath Israel was led by Hasidic rabbis and heads of Lithuanian yeshivot. Its goal was to strengthen Orthodox religious institutions and make them independent of Zionism.

In 1919, Rabbis Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld and Yitzchok Yerucham Diskin founded the Edah Hahareidis organization in the Land of Israel as part of Agudat Israel. Despite being a minority on the committee representing the Jews before the British Mandate, Sonnenfeld secured separate representation for the Haredim before the British High Commissioner. They claimed to cooperate with the general Jewish representation on municipal matters, but sought to protect their religious beliefs independently. This simple fact is considered the breaking point of the Haredi community with the rest of the Jewish community.

In the decade beginning in 1945, following the end of World War II, there was a strong push to rebuild the Haredi religious lifestyle, destroyed in the Holocaust. In the nascent State of Israel, this was done by the Chazon Ish, and in the United States by Rabbi Aharon Kotler, who established many of America’s schools and yeshivos. Rabbi Joel Teitelbaum played an important role in the revitalization of the Hasidim, especially the Satmar dynasty. In Israel, the formation and spread of the Haredi lifestyle among Sephardic Jews began in the 1980s, led by Rabbi Ovadia Yosef and the Shas political party. Sephardic Jews adopted the culture of the Lithuanian Haredim, without any historical or cultural basis for doing so.

Haredi Judaism is not an institutionally cohesive or homogeneous group. It is composed of a wide variety of groups with particular cultural and spiritual orientations, including their ideology, lifestyle, religious practice, and degree of isolation. Men and women attend separate schools, and this gender separation has been extended to the public sphere. Many men continue their education after marriage. Haredi families are very large. They do not watch television or movies, nor do they use the internet or computers at home.

The Haredim opposed the establishment of the State of Israel and do not celebrate its Independence Day. Some groups participate in Israeli politics, joining political parties, but only to secure advantages and benefits for their members. Others are anti-Zionist, like the Neturei Karta. In any case, Haredi life is like returning to life in the medieval ghetto.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: Encyclopaedia Judaica and other sources.

The Jewish Enlightenment, the Haskala, from the late 18th to the early 20th century, was the catalyst for a wide range of religious, cultural, and political movements. These initially developed in Europe, then migrated to the United States, and then spread to the rest of the Jewish communities, including the State of Israel. The main currents are:

The Orthodox: They maintain that the Written Torah and the Oral Torah (the Talmud) were revealed by God directly to Moses, so the commandments they contain are binding and immutable. They consider Josef Caro’s Shulchan Aruch to be the definitive codification of Jewish law (halakha). They are further divided into two groups: the first are the Haredim, who reject modernity and live segregated from the surrounding society. The second are the Modern Orthodox, who accept modernity while still complying with halakha.

Conservatives: (Masorti Movement). They maintain that the Torah is a divinely inspired creation of man. They accept that the commandments of halacha are binding, but that these can be modified by a collegial body of rabbis to adapt to new circumstances, while remaining consistent with the original values ​​of Judaism. They emphasize that Judaism is constantly evolving, as evidenced by its own history. The movement accepts that both men and women have equal rights in the religious sphere.

Reformists: Also called liberals or progressives, they consider it optional to comply with the commandments of halacha, but they emphasize compliance with the ethical precepts of the Torah and the biblical prophets. They consider everyone equal for religious purposes and use the language of their country more than Hebrew in their prayers. For them, the Torah was written by man.

Reconstructionists: Originating in the United States, they consider Judaism a civilization in progressive evolution. For them, the reason for complying with halacha is more for its historical value than for obligation. Changes in laws and customs are decided by each community. The Torah was not inspired by God, but is the product of the historical and social development of the Jewish people, who are responsible for taking an active and participatory role in its evolution.

But these are not the only options. Other movements have emerged in the United States. One is Jewish Renewal, which emphasizes Kabbalistic and Hasidic concepts, along with an extensive use of music. Another is Humanist Judaism, which offers a non-theistic (Godless) vision and considers Judaism as the historical and cultural experience of the Jewish people. Yet another is Traditionalist Judaism, which emerged from a group of Conservative synagogues and rabbis who distanced themselves from that movement when it granted equal rights to women, including the right to study to become rabbis. A fourth is Open Orthodox Judaism, which aspires to a more prominent role for women, even to the point of serving as rabbis.

Aside from the religious option, we have secular Judaism, which completely distances itself from the religious sphere; Zionism, the national expression of Jewish identity, especially present in Israel and which has many facets (including religious ones); and finally, cultural Judaism, which is expressed in the cultural creations of the Jewish people.

The Jewish menu is very rich in options. You can be: Haredi, Modern Orthodox, Conservative, Reform, Reconstructionist, Renewalist, Humanist, Traditionalist, Open Orthodox, Secular, Zionist, or Cultural. Some choose only one dish, but others like a bit of everything.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: Jewish Encyclopaedia and other sources.

There is no commandment in the Torah commanding us to light candles on Shabbat, even though the blessing clearly states, “vetzivanu lehadlik ner shel shabat,” “and you commanded us to light Shabbat candles.” The earliest document containing the blessing for Shabbat candles is the “Siddur of Rav Amram,” written by Amram Gaon in the 9th century CE.

In the absence of earlier sources, it is believed that women lit candles before Shabbat without saying a blessing. Most rabbis before 1000 CE held that lighting a candle on Shabbat was a women’s occupation, simply because they were at home while the man was in the synagogue. Lighting a light had no ritual purpose; it was simply intended to prevent the family from sitting in the dark during dinner. In the 11th century, a blessing began to be said when lighting a candle on Shabbat, copied from the one said when lighting Hanukkah candles. The earliest mention of the ritual is attributed to Hannah, Rashi’s granddaughter, who describes her mother lighting the candles and blessing them. Some explain that the blessing emphasized having a burning flame on Shabbat, in contrast to the Karaite position, which stated that no fire could be lit.

Over the years, lighting candles on Shabbat and holidays became the responsibility of women, although men may do so if there is no woman in the house. There are ancient illustrations showing women performing the candle-lighting ritual. Women’s graves have also been found in Eastern Europe with engraved images of Shabbat candles and hands blessing them.

It is most common to light two candles. The sages explain that they represent two versions of the biblical commandment regarding Shabbat: the one that commands «zachor,» to remember Shabbat, and the one that commands «shamor,» to observe Shabbat. Some light more: one candle for each family member, or six candles representing the six days of the week preceding Shabbat, or seven corresponding to the days of the week, or ten candles commemorating the Ten Commandments, or up to 12 for the twelve tribes.

The Gemara comments in Masechet Shabbat (23b) that if one cannot afford to buy Shabbat candles or Chanukah candles, Shabbat candles take priority, out of shalom bayit, for peace in the home. Rashi explains this by saying that family members would feel uncomfortable sitting in the dark, as they might stumble and fall, disrupting the peace in the home.

At first, lighting Shabbat candles was less symbolic and more practical. But over time, the purpose changed, and lighting candles on Shabbat is now one of the most symbolic and representative rituals of Judaism.

By: Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Article by Nina Amir, Jewish Encyclopedia, and other sources.

Mordechai Kaplan (1881-1983) was born in Lithuania. His parents, Rabbi Israel and Haya Kaplan, gave him a traditional Jewish education. In 1889, the family emigrated to the United States and settled in New York. He attended public schools, graduated from the City College of New York, then was ordained as a rabbi at the Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) and received his master’s degree from Columbia University.

He was hired as an associate rabbi at Kehillath Jeshurun, an Orthodox synagogue in New York, where he remained until 1909, when he resigned and Salomon Schechter appointed him director of the JTS Teachers’ Institute and later professor of homiletics (preparing and delivering sermons), midrash, and philosophy of religion. He remained a teacher at JTS for 54 years, and during those years, virtually all of the rabbinical students were his students.

He and his family continued to practice Judaism in a traditional way, although over time, Kaplan began to become disillusioned with Orthodoxy and interested in non-Orthodox approaches to Judaism. He promoted the concept of the Jewish Community Center (JCC), which would have a synagogue but would also be a center for study, the development of the arts, and even sports. In 1922, when his eldest daughter turned twelve, Kaplan allowed her to say the blessing at the beginning of the Torah reading (he gave her an «aliya»), marking the first bat mitzvah for a woman, a ceremony that is now commonplace.

In 1935, he wrote «Judaism as a Civilization,» his most important work. In it, he argued for the need to rebuild Judaism. He argued that despite the geographical dispersion of the Jewish people and cultural differences, we are united by a common religious civilization, along with a common history. Kaplan argued that Judaism was not simply a religion, a form of behavior and belief, or a people. It was all of these and more. It was a civilization that included language, history, institutions, beliefs, practices, arts, literature, ethics, symbols, customs, ties to a land, and a religion that gave structure to everything and that evolved over time.

He rejected several classic concepts of traditional Judaism, such as that of being the chosen people, the concept of the Messiah as a human being, and the resurrection of the dead in the Messianic era. In 1945, Kaplan published a prayer book, a siddur, in which he eliminated references to these concepts he rejected. In response, a group of Orthodox rabbis gathered in a formal session, excommunicated him and burned his siddur.

Kaplan studied social sciences, especially William James, Emil Durkheim, and John Dewey, and their work in the fields of psychology, sociology, and philosophy applied to religion. He realized that virtually all religions had similar characteristics, for example, a great prophet and a holy book. He argued that religion is a product that emerges from within a healthy community and not from outside. When asked if there is only one true religion and the others are false, he replied that religions are the natural product of the intuition of each community, and therefore, each religion is true for the community that produced it. For him, Judaism is the creation of the Jewish people and no one else. Judaism is what the Jewish people want it to be. Judaism is more than a religion; it is a civilization.

By: Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Conservative Judaism by Neil Gillman and other sources.