Al Reguel Ajat

It is proven that synagogues already existed in the time of the Second Temple, both in Israel and in the Diaspora, and were intended for public prayers. We know this from the writings of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus Flavius, who lived at the end of that time.

The synagogue, as a place of prayer, had a function of its own and was not to replace the Temple in Jerusalem, but rather to complement it. Thus we know that there was a synagogue very close to the Temple itself (Mishnah Yoma 7:1). The main function of the Temple was to provide a place for the Shekhinah (the Manifestation of God in the world) and for offering sacrifices. Occasional public gatherings were also held there to request some Divine favor, and individuals could pray there. However, the Temple building itself did not have a place to host regular public prayer services, in which the entire community participated. This required a special place, the synagogue, for group prayer.

Most of the ancient synagogues were destroyed due to constant religious persecution. We know of their existence from mentions in contemporary books and from archaeological remains. There are ruins of synagogues in Jerusalem and Masada, as well as in other places in the Land of Israel, which date back to the Second Temple period. In Babylon there were two, one in Nehardea (Megillah 29a) and another in the city of Hutzal. They are thought to have been built by the first exiles who were sent to Babylon during the First Temple period. There are also writings and some physical evidence of synagogues built in Egypt in the 3rd century BCE.

There are mentions and archaeological remains of synagogues built in Syria, the Greek Islands, Italy and elsewhere. Important remains of ancient synagogues with mosaic floors have been discovered in Israel, in the Galilee area and elsewhere such as Naaram and Ein Gedi, although these date back to the 3rd century CE.

It is not actually known when the first synagogues were established. It is clear that special places were already designated for meetings to pray and to read the Torah since ancient times. The prophet Jeremiah (39:8) speaks of the “Beit Ha Am”, which some sages interpret as indicating that it was a synagogue. Synagogues were called Mikdash Meat, the small temple, and their design simulated that of the Temple of Jerusalem. For example, instead of the “Kodesh Hakodashim”, the Aron Hakodesh, the cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept, was placed in front of the synagogue and instead of the altar for sacrifices, the Bimah, the place from which the Torah is now read, was placed.

The transition from making sacrifices in the Temple to praying in a synagogue did not happen abruptly or overnight. It happened gradually over hundreds of years, during which both structures coexisted. In the end, the Temple was destroyed, but the synagogue survived. When was the first synagogue built? Who knows. But it’s good that someone did.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

Initially, the role of the Shaliach Tzibur (the one who leads the prayer) was created out of a practical need that arose when praying in public. Since the prayers were not written down, and many people did not know them by heart, there was a need for someone who was well versed in this subject to lead the prayers. This person was to say them out loud so that others could repeat them after him or could listen to him and answer “Amen” at the end of each blessing. Later, even though many already knew the prayers, the Shaliach Tzibur was needed for those who did not know them. For this reason, it was decreed that after the participants finished silently praying the Amidah, the Shaliach Tzibur had to repeat it out loud. This is the origin of “Hazarat ha Shatz,” the repetition of the Amidah by the Shaliach Tzibur.

The loud repetition of the Amidah was even more important on Jewish holidays, especially on Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, because there were changes and additions to the Amidah and few people could recite it by heart. However, over time, as it was written down and reproduced in the form of printed books, which were even used to teach the prayers to children, the repetition of the Amidah continued simply as a tradition and no longer as a practical necessity. In his time, Maimonides decided that this repetition should be abolished, since all participants had prayed the Amidah silently. Only in Egypt and a few countries, which respected Maimonides’ authority, did they heed him and stop repeating the Amidah. This did not last long and soon the custom of repeating it was resumed. The repetition of the Amidah had already acquired an additional meaning of complementing and elevating the public prayer. Over time, as people were able to pray from a printed book, the Sheliach Tzibur was chosen from among the congregation and was usually someone who liked to lead the prayers. This role was gradually taken over by certain people who spent more time in the synagogue performing various functions. This individual would soon become the Jazan. Thus, the role of leading the public prayers changed from a mere practical necessity to one of enhancing and beautifying the prayers. People expected the Jazan to have a good voice and to embellish the prayers with beautiful melodies, in addition to becoming the emissary of the congregation’s prayers to God.

In Conservative and Reform synagogues the Amidah is not always repeated aloud. Usually the part containing the first three blessings is said aloud and the rest is said silently. This is also done in Orthodox synagogues on some occasions. Ultimately, leading a prayer is a more intense way of getting closer to God. What do you say, do you want to lead the prayer?

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

The evidence that there have been variations in the format of prayers is very old. At the beginning, in the time of the Mishnah, the text of the prayers was not particularly taken care of. No written version of the prayers is known from that time. Everyone had to know them by heart and this inevitably led to variations in the structure and content of the prayers.

The existence of different versions of the prayers is comparable to the existence of variations in halachic practices. The rabbis said that everyone had to follow the custom of their parents or of the place where they lived. The differences were accepted as long as they did not violate the provisions of Halacha and were given the status of religious “custom.” Rabbi Isaac Luria said that this is why there were twelve different gates to enter Jerusalem, one for each rite.

The changes occurred due to the continuous expulsions and migrations of Jewish communities that dispersed in different directions and took their rite to other communities, sometimes maintaining it, other times adopting the one from the new place and other times creating a new one. Today there are basically 5 different rites (Nusakh) in use: The Ashkenazi Nusaj, the Hasidic Nusaj, the Sephardic Nusaj, the Yemenite Nusaj and the Italian Nusaj. The last two are used only locally.

The Ashkenazi Nusaj is based on the rite established by Rav Amram Gaon, following the customs of Eretz Israel. It seems that a group of Jews left Israel for Italy, from there to France, especially to the Franco-German border and from there to the countries of Eastern Europe. The Ashkenazi rite began in France in the 12th century, when that country was the main center of Judaism in Western Europe. It was consolidated in a more definitive version in Germany, at the time of the Tosafot, the sages who followed Rashi, the great commentator of the Tanakh and the Talmud.

The Hasidic Nusaj, practiced by the students and followers of the Baal Shem Tov, is based on the Ashkenazi Nusaj, but with important changes in the order of the service and with additions and deletions influenced by the Kabbalah of Rabbi Luria. It is distinguished by duplicating many of the prayers, a result of not eliminating texts that were repeated in Rabbi Luria’s changes.

The Eastern or Sephardic Nusaj is derived from that used by the Jews in Spain before their expulsion. Babylon was the origin of the Jews who came to the peninsula through North Africa. The «Golden Age» of Spanish Judaism produced religious poetry of the highest intellectual and literary quality. After the expulsion from Spain, Spanish Jews settled in the Ottoman Empire where they brought their rituals. The increasing influence of Kabbalah in later generations helped spread this Nusach to countries such as Iraq and Persia.

This diversity in rituals enriches the experience of praying. In this respect, too, Judaism is plural. So it is good that they pray differently.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

There are countless examples throughout the rabbinic texts where religious leaders took bold stances against what they perceived as morally or socially problematic halachic commandments. One of them was Hillel, one of the most prominent figures of the Mishnah and Talmudic era. Hillel demonstrates a sensitive and courageous personality. Following the spiritual heritage of Abraham, Hillel trusts his own moral judgment and acts accordingly.

Deuteronomy 15:1-3 tells us: “Every seventh year you shall practice the cancellation of debts. …Every creditor shall cancel the debt that he claims from his fellow who owes him…” This verse dictated the cancellation of debts in the Sabbatical year within the Jewish community. The law of “shemitat kesafim” sought to reduce economic dependence between different sectors of Jewish society.

However, what was actually happening in Jewish society was not in keeping with the spirit of the commandment. In the year before the Shemitah, lenders refused to lend money to the needy. A law that was intended to help the needy was actually preventing them from receiving the help they needed.

Hillel realized the problem and devised the mechanism of the “Prozbol.” The Prozbol was a document where the creditor transferred to the judges of the rabbinical court the promissory note specifying a certain debt and they undertook to return the money to its rightful owner after collecting it. (BT Gittin 36a).

Hillel acted spontaneously based on what he saw. He did not wait for reality to conform to lofty ideals nor did he wait for divine or sage permission. Hillel’s understanding of the Prozbol was in keeping with the attitude of the Tanaim, the group of rabbis of the Mishnah, to give an answer according to the circumstances. But this attitude changed with the Amoraim, the rabbis of the Gemarah who were stupefied by Hillel’s interpretation. Later generations of sages were incredulous at Hillel’s audacity. How is it possible that if the Torah ordered that debts be cancelled in the seventh year, Hillel ordered the opposite? The sage Abaye, in the same verse of the Talmud, justified this by saying that Hillel «acted according to the sabbatical year of his time.»

There are still many problematic commandments to be resolved. One is that of the Agunot, those women who for different circumstances cannot remarry. Another is the definition of who is a Jew, which has many variants, depending on the type of Judaism that each one practices. This requires a rabbinic authority with boldness and sensitivity to the circumstances of these times. Another Hillel is needed.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “From Defender to Critic” by Rabbi David Hartman.

Theologians use different terms to understand the status of the human representation of God. They call them analogies, symbols or more commonly metaphors, in the literal sense of the word that comes from Greek and means to transfer or move. A metaphor is a figure of speech where the common meaning of a word is transferred to another reality and where it can be understood only implicitly. Metaphors abound in our daily language. The lion is “the king of beasts,” we are in the “twilight of our life,” the “market crashed,” they were guilty of “money laundering,” etc. All these words acquire a meaning other than the literal one, according to the context in which they are used.

Maimonides tells us that our way of speaking about God is entirely metaphorical: “That is to say, ‘under his feet’ (Exodus 24:10), ‘written with the finger of God’ (Exodus 31:18), ‘the eyes of God’ (Genesis 38:7)… All of these expressions are adapted to the mental capacity of humanity, which has a clear perception of what a physical body is. The Torah speaks in the language of man, but all of these phrases are metaphorical.” (Mishneh Torah 1:9).

Maimonides is referring to our habitual practice of anthropomorphism, that is, conceiving of God in human form. Just think of Michelangelo’s painting of The Creation in the Sistine Chapel, where an old man (God) touches Adam with his finger. Therefore, we must not forget that these descriptions of God should not be taken literally but metaphorically, and not only in the case of his physical attributes, but also those of his “personality” (another metaphor), as when the prophets tell us that God gets “angry” (Jeremiah 7:19).

Maimonides, a rationalist par excellence, said that it was a heresy to think that God has a body, feelings, and that he behaves like human beings. God is not the one who literally “hears” prayers, “spoke” at Sinai, or “sees” human behavior. All these expressions are man’s way of understanding a reality that transcends human understanding and knowledge.

Thinking and speaking about God is thinking and speaking metaphorically. We must accept this fact and understand its implications. Because speaking with metaphors is when a word can take on any meaning. That is why “You are my sunshine” means more than a ray of light.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: “The Jewish Approach to God” by Rabbi Neil Gillman.

Judaism considers the “full” life to be more in the dimension of ethical conduct among men than in that of religious worship. The “hasid” (the man who does “hesed,” mercy) is one who has a generous and altruistic character in his relationship with his fellow men, as opposed to one who is very meticulous and observant in fulfilling only his duties of worship. There are two types of obligations imposed on the Jew: obligations toward God and obligations toward his fellow man. Judaism demands that he fulfill both without distinguishing between them, as we see constantly in the texts of the Torah where they are intertwined, such as in Exodus 22 and 23.

It is more difficult in Judaism to measure and value man’s obligations toward his fellow man than man’s obligations toward God. We know that man’s social responsibilities are derived from the divine commandments in the Torah. Thus, on the one hand, man’s obligations towards his family and society are based on the golden rule: “You shall love your neighbor as yourself. I am the Lord” (Leviticus 19:18). It is God who validates and commands loving your neighbor. But, on the other hand, the Talmud clearly tells us that the man to man commandments are largely independent of the man to God commandments. Thus, for example, it establishes that fasting and praying on Yom Kippur only absolves man’s sins against God, but not those he committed against another person. These are only forgiven by God when you have made amends and obtained forgiveness from the individual you offended (BT Yoma 87a).

What a purely religious sin really is, is an act of disobedience to a commandment given by a Higher Being. An offense in the world of social ethics is a lack of kindness, a refusal to want to relate ethically with another human being. And this is not only in the case of one-on-one relationships, but also in the relationship with the family, the community, the state and all of humanity. Judaism is especially distinguished from other religions by its great concern for the community.

It is clear that Western man has become increasingly individualistic. But when the Torah was given to us at Mount Sinai, that covenant obliged all Jews, in all times, all those who form that entity called the People of Israel to fulfill it. That covenant implies living life in a “full” way.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: “The Good Society, Jewish Ethics in Action” by Norman Lamm.

In ancient times, the Tallit was the outer garment or street clothing worn by Jewish men. This garment consisted of a large rectangular piece of woven wool that was wrapped around the body when one went outside the house. The word Tallit comes from Aramaic and means covering.

In shape and use, the Tallit was similar to garments commonly used by other peoples in the Mediterranean, such as the himation, which was a wide, enveloping cloak, a kind of shawl, used by the Greeks. It was worn over the body, wrapped or rolled over one shoulder and did not have a tie or fastening. At the end of the Roman Republic, the himation was the usual cloak of the Romans, as it was more practical than the toga and was given the name pallium.

This type of garment was very practical and appropriate for the climate of those countries where there were constant variations in temperature. During cold weather, the Tallit could be wrapped around the entire body, while in hot weather, it could be folded and worn loosely over the shoulders. It was also a very practical garment that could be removed for heavy work, used to cover oneself when going to sleep, or could be wrapped in an elegant way when going to a ceremony or public place.

The commandment to tie Tzitzit, fringes, to our clothing referred specifically to this type of garment, as it is written in Deuteronomy 22:12: “And you shall make fringes on the four corners of the garment with which you cover yourself.” Therefore, according to tradition, a garment that does not have four corners does not require Tzitzit.

The Bible does not mandate that a prayer shawl or Tallit be worn. Rather, it assumes that people wore some kind of garment to cover themselves and only instructs them to add fringes or Tzitzit to its four corners (Numbers 15:30 and Deuteronomy 22:12). These two verses do not specify how the Tzitzit are tied. Nor do they make a distinction between men and women as to who may or should wear them. The current custom of how to tie the Tzitzit and the shape and use of the Talit is post-biblical, defined by the rabbis and varies according to each Jewish community.

As time went by, and in view of the dispersion of the Jewish people to distant lands, the style of clothing changed. The Talit was no longer an everyday garment and the clothing worn did not usually have four corners. Therefore, the commandment to wear Tzitzit could no longer be fulfilled. It seemed that this commandment, which was highly appreciated, was going to disappear. To prevent this from happening, the custom was maintained throughout the Jewish world to continue wearing the Tallit only for sacred and worship purposes. Now we use it to pray and no longer to protect ourselves from the cold as before.

By Marcos Gojman Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

Praying is par excellence the most used way for man to relate to God and is as old as humanity itself. However, the Torah, the book that marks the path of how man relates to God, does not have a fixed and structured pattern for praying to Him. Some sages held that the Torah ordered a person to turn to God daily to offer Him the “service of the heart” (avodah shebalev), while others thought that one should pray only in case of some misfortune. In any case, the Torah does not specify any fixed time or the content of the prayers. Most people prayed when the need arose, in times of misfortune or to ask God for something specific.

At the beginning of the Second Temple period, between the 5th and 3rd centuries BCE, the rabbis of the Great Assembly managed to define and regularize the text of the prayers. They coined a standardized version of the basic prayers and blessings. That structure, initially known simply as Tefilah, developed into what we know today as the Amidah (standing prayer), also called Shemoneh Esreh (eighteen blessings). The Amidah has a very well-defined structure, which has been preserved unchanged ever since. Only on Shabbat and on holidays, including Yom Kippur, is this structure modified, with some of the blessings being eliminated.

In addition to having established a fixed content, the sages of the Great Assembly established the times and order for the religious services. These times were linked to those of the sacrifices in the Temple. Thus, Shacharit, the morning prayer, was done at the same time as the daily morning sacrifice (Tamid). Minhah in turn coincided with the afternoon sacrifice and Maariv with the conclusion of the Temple rituals in the evening. Since it was customary to make additional sacrifices on holidays, the Musaf prayer was added for these occasions. The requirement to pray in community, that is, to pray with a minyan, also originates from that time. The prayer was led by one person, the Sheliach Tzibur, who knew the prayer practically by heart, he would say it out loud and the others would follow him. Remember that at that time there were no printed books as we have today. The final structure of the prayers was defined only after the destruction of the Second Temple. The Sanhedrin introduced changes to adapt to the new reality after the catastrophe. All these prayers were arranged in a book, the Siddur.

The Siddur, of which there are now more than 100 different versions, is not a completely finished work, nor is it the work of a few, but rather contains the contributions of each generation that has added its own prayers full of wisdom and emotion. The Siddur is without a doubt the most popular book in Judaism. Other books such as the Tanach and the Talmud, which are more focused on being studied, are perhaps less widely distributed than the Siddur, which is known and used daily by practically everyone. The Siddur is without a doubt the biggest “best seller” within Judaism.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

Rabbi Akiba was the leading Torah teacher in the second half of the first century and the first half of the second century of the common era. It has been difficult for historians to put together a clear version of his life, due to the large number of legends that exist about him. Some sources say that he was ignorant, that he was very poor, that his wife Rachel encouraged him to go to study and that he returned after many years with a large number of students and in a comfortable financial position. But other sources tell us other contradictory stories. What is historically clear is his connection with Bar Kochba whom he considered to be the Messiah, the one who was going to free the Jewish people from the Roman yoke. His death as a martyr at the hands of the Romans is attributed to this relationship.

Akiba made important contributions to Judaism. First of all, Akiba was the one who established the definitive canon of the Jewish Bible. His participation was decisive in deciding which books would form the Tanach. But his greatest contribution was his work on the subject of Halachah, both in the systematization of the traditional rules and in their subsequent development. He saw that the lack of a systematized collection of the entire body of halachot that already existed, did not allow for its practical application or an orderly theoretical study, which varied according to the scholar who taught it. The code that Akiba systematized was used by his student Rabbi Jehuda Hanasi as a basis for compiling the Mishnah.

Akiba realized that the intellectual bond that united the Jews had to be strengthened now more than ever, after the destruction of the Jewish State in Eretz Israel. The Bible could not fill that space, because Christians also considered it to be a divine revelation. Nor could dogmas have that function, since they were rejected by rabbinical Judaism, which had as its true essence to be in constant development and evolution. Akiba taught: “Take your place a few steps below your proper place until you are invited to go higher, for it is better to be told “go higher” than “go lower.”

Akiba was convinced that the way the Bible was written was different from any other book. For him, everything in the Torah had a meaning, every word, every syllable, every letter, every sign. Not only did he give the Jewish mind a new field to develop, but he also gave the Holy Scriptures the character of immutability. Although this did not stop him from modifying some precept that he considered did not respect the true spirit of Judaism, as in the case of underage Jewish slaves. (Exodus 21:7)

In opposition to the Christian doctrine that insisted that God is only love, Akiba taught that God combined kindness with mercy within a strict system of justice. He said: “Whatever God does, He does because it is the best.” Rabbi Akiba ben Yosef was the man who paved the way for Judaism for the past two thousand years. That is why he deserves to be considered the father of Rabbinic Judaism.

By Marcos Gojman:

Bibliography: “The unedited full-text of the 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia”.

The Jewish community in Babylon dates back to late biblical times and originates from the deportations of Jews from the Land of Israel that followed before and after the destruction of the First Temple (586 BCE). Following the Hellenistic conquest of the East, the Jews of Babylon, like their brethren in Eretz Israel, lived first under the rule of the Seleucids and then became subjects of the Kingdom of Parthia, a federation of feudal principalities, which gave them a certain autonomy since, as long as they gave their support in times of war, the rulers did not interfere in their internal affairs.

It was after the destruction of the Second Temple (70 CE) and the Bar Kochba revolt (132-135) that groups of scholars from Eretz Israel emigrated to Babylon, no doubt in the wake of the religious persecution that followed at the hands of the Romans. Although Eretz Yisrael remained the center where matters of religious practice, such as the order of the Hebrew calendar, were decided, over time and with Rome’s continuing campaign to wipe out Judaism, this function had, by the mid-third century, passed to the academies of study (yeshivot) in Babylon.

It was in these academies that the Babylonian Talmud began to be written down. The sages and their disciples interpreted the Mishnah in oral discussions that were transcribed as is. That is why these texts do not bear a systematic and concise account. The conversations were transcribed with everything that could come up in a conversation, including topics that were unrelated to the main point or comments that went off on a tangent. The Babylonian Talmud is said to be like the sea: immense in size, with hidden depths and without a specific shape.

According to scholars, the Babylonian Talmud, as opposed to the Jerusalem Talmud, eventually became “The Tamud” as a result of Babylon being the main center of Torah learning. The academies of Sura and Pumbedita, their teachers, and their teachings were accepted as the supreme rabbinical authority for the entire diaspora. The fact that the Tamud Jerusalemmi had been completed 150 years earlier gave the Talmud Babli an advantage, since being later, it gave it greater authority in case of discrepancies.

The Talmud Babli is a storehouse of information relating to the life itself, customs, beliefs, and superstitions of both Jews and non-Jews. It is a source of history, medicine, astronomy, commerce, agriculture, magic, botany, zoology, and other sciences. When it was finally completed, it became the basic text used in academies throughout the Jewish world. But putting it into writing (more than 2.5 million words) was a Herculean task, since there was no printing press at that time. You can imagine that hand-copying involved errors, changes and additions, making it difficult to canonize a definitive text. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century helped to mitigate the problem somewhat. But even so, despite the many editions, it has always had the stamp of “Made in Babylon.”

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Encyclopaedia Judaica and “Babylonian Rabbinic Culture” by Professor Isaiah Gafni, part of the book “Cultures of the Jews” edited by David Biale.