Al Reguel Ajat

It is very difficult to study any part of the Tanach without mentioning Rashi’s commentaries. No one else has had such a profound impact on Jewish studies over the past thousand years as he did. In addition to his commentaries on the Torah, Rashi commented on most of the books of the Jewish Bible and most of the tractates of the Babylonian Talmud. His commentaries are undoubtedly the basis for understanding the Jewish Scriptures and their fundamental principles.

Rashi, the acronym for Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzchak, lived in France in medieval times. Rashi was born in Troyes, in the province of Champagne, in 1040 and died there on July 13, 1105. In his writings he used the two basic methods of interpretation, the «peshaṭ» and the «derash.» Literal and non-literal interpretation, with the latter commonly using the Midrash. In addition to commenting on the basic texts of Judaism, he also had a house of study, although he did not live by teaching but by trading in wines.

Rashi had three daughters who married great scholars. His grandsons were the famous Tosafot, a group of scholars who, ironically, were the first to dissent from their grandfather’s commentaries on the Talmud. The main one was his grandson Yacob, known as Rabbeinu Tam. Questioning Rashi’s comments sparked a great interest in the study of the Talmud. Over time, his grandsons spread throughout the world, founding houses of study.

The first known printed Jewish text was a Rashi’s commentary on the Torah, which was printed in Reggio in 1475. Rashi used language that was not only clear but precise, always respecting the true context of the text in question as well as its meaning and reproducing all the variants of thought that existed on the subject. His fame soon spread beyond the borders of France, to Germany, Spain and the Middle East. Rashi rarely questioned the texts he commented on, but anticipating the doubts that the scholar would have, he provided the appropriate answer, using very well-chosen words. His commentaries on the Talmud have been printed in practically every edition since the first one made in Italy. Rashi was instrumental in establishing the definitive text of the Talmud by comparing different manuscripts and determining which versions were the most appropriate. In his commentaries on the Bible he examines not only the literal meaning of the text, but also uses allegories, parables and symbolism to illustrate its non-literal meaning. Breishit 1:16 says: “And God made two great lights; the greater luminary to rule the day and the lesser luminary to rule the night; he also made the stars.” The sages questioned why the Torah first speaks of two great luminaries and then speaks of one greater than the other. Rashi explains this by saying that at first they were created of the same size, but since the moon complained that there could not be two kings in the firmament at the same time, then the Creator made the moon smaller, out of complaint, but in the end He compensated for it with the stars.

This is an example of Rashi’s comments. Thanks to him, it is easier to understand the Scriptures.

Prepared by Marcos Gojman from various sources.

Like Europeans in general, Jews were deeply affected by the spread of printing. Especially in the 16th and 17^th, centuries this phenomenon had a democratizing effect. With printed books cheaper than manuscripts, more sections of the population, besides the scholars or the wealthy, could find their way to knowledge. Unlike previously, where teachers decided what and how to impart knowledge, people could now study on their own.

At the end of the medieval period, manuscripts were used as the basis for the lessons that teachers gave in the yeshivot. Each teacher presented orally the text of the manuscript together with his own interpretations, explanations and analyses. These explanations, called haghot, were noted by his students in the margins of the manuscript. When that manuscript was copied again by hand, these comments were usually incorporated into the main text. This explains why there are several versions of the same text.

But with the advent of the printing press, the author’s original text or the one edited by the editor was permanently fixed. The text had a life of its own, separate from the interpretations of the teachers. The teacher began to lose some of the authority that came with being the sole interpreter of knowledge.

In addition to broadening the audience of scholars and allowing students a bit of independence, the printed book introduced new topics and new information. Thanks to the intense activity of the publishing houses in Italy, the yeshivoth of Ashkenaz and Poland in the 16th and 17th centuries were inundated especially with books written by medieval Sephardic teachers, to which they had very limited access. Maimonides, Nachmanides, Saadia Gaon and many others could now be studied directly and in depth. The teachers themselves had to consider more authors when presenting their classes. They now had greater access to philosophy and to the interpretation of the Bible and the Midrashim.

Opinions against the indiscriminate use of printed books soon arose. In April 1559, the rabbi of Poznan, Aaron Land, wrote a sermon attacking the openness to printed texts. Incredibly, the books that this group of rabbis considered a danger to Judaism were not about philosophy, but about Halacha, such as the new code recently presented by Joseph Karo, the Shuljan Aruch. However, their arguments for opposing it had a certain logic. The new canon that the printing press was imposing implied a fixed text, which did not admit modifications at the time of oral transmission. The printing press could put Jewish law in the hands of novices who read these texts and pretended to know how to apply them. It was like having a recipe book that anyone could use. They were opposed to there being a single rabbi or a single code that would resolve each situation a priori. They said that the law should be interpreted in a particular way in each case, based on the text of the Talmud and not with general formulas. The printing press had its pros and cons.

Prepared by Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: Innovative tradition, Jewish Culture in the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, by Moshe Rosman.

In 11th century Germany, Jewish merchants would travel for their profession to Muslim Spain, North Africa or the East and would be away for years, leaving their wives and children without support and sometimes with only the support of the wife’s parents. It even happened that men would marry for the second time in one of those distant lands and start a second family.

Since biblical times there was no prohibition on polygamy. Polygamous Jewish marriages existed among Jews living in Muslim lands, where men were allowed to have up to four wives. But in the 11th century a series of takanot, edicts, were promulgated to protect women. Gershom ben Judah, a rabbi from Mainz, stipulated that a husband could not be away for more than 18 months and upon his return he had to remain at home for at least another six months. He also decreed that although men are the ones who initiate the divorce process, women had to agree to divorce. Previously, Halacha, based on verses 24:1 and 24:3 of Deuteronomy, assigned a passive role to women. Their opinion did not matter. Rabbeinu Gershom introduced the revolutionary idea that women had to agree. This condition was stipulated because some husbands simply paid their wives the amount stipulated in the ketubah in order to be able to divorce and that was it. This takanah originally only applied in Mainz, but by the middle of the century it had spread to northern France, England and all of Germany.

This rule prevented the husband of simply sending the divorce papers and thus solving the problem, when the wife discovered that he had a second family. From this takanah onwards, the husband could not divorce the first wife if she did not agree. The takanah practically prohibited having more than one wife. If someone wanted to suspend the effect of the edict and divorce without the wife’s consent, the takanah stipulated that 100 sages were required to agree for the husband to be able to divorce.

The rabbinical prohibition against bigamy dates back to the early 11th century. Rabbeinu Gershom ben Judah of Metz prohibited bigamy or polygamy under penalty of excommunication, surely influenced by the norm of monogamy practiced in Christian Europe. His decree was accepted without opposition by French and German Jews in particular. The prohibition of polygamy and the need for both parties to agree in order to divorce created a paradigm shift in the life of European Jews. With this, they could no longer have one in every port.

Prepared by Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: A Jewish – Christian Symbiosis, the culture of Early Ashkenaz by Ivan G. Marcus.

Rabbi David Hartman, in his book “From Defender to Critic,” comments that from a religious point of view, the creation of the Universe and the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai are undoubtedly the two most significant moments described in the Torah. Both imply the fact that God spoke. His Word created the Universe from nothing, and His Word, in giving us the Torah, also constituted the Sinai Covenant. However, these two events are very different from each other: the first can be represented as the speech of an artist and the second as the speech of a teacher. On the one hand, we have God the Creator and on the other, God the Teacher.

The artist, when creating something, is not concerned about whether others understand what he is doing. What he needs is to give vent to his creative impetus. Picasso, Van Gogh or Mondrian, when they painted, were not thinking about whether people would understand their work; what they wanted was to get out what they had inside. His speech is a monologue.

On the other hand, the teacher’s speech seeks to communicate with the other, what he seeks is for his student to understand him. And when speaking he thinks of the other, so that his message fulfills the objective of guiding and persuading. The good teacher takes into account who his «student» is and his ability to understand. It is not a monologue, but a dialogue.

Using these two models we can see that Creation reflects the model of the artist, where divine speech is a monologue. On the other hand, the Covenant at Sinai reflects a speech that is directed to an audience in order to influence and guide it. In Creation, humanity plays no role; at Sinai it plays the role of the listener, of the one who receives the message. The speech at Sinai has the objective of having the other participate in the dialogue.

And the Creator’s speech at Sinai takes into account who he is speaking to. He is not speaking to platonically perfect beings. The Torah accepts that dialogue occurs between divine aspiration and human imperfection. The Torah is not a heavenly law directed at perfect beings. The Torah is an answer to what man is, a being who has passions and jealousy, who steals from others or who desires the neighbor’s wife.

Our sages understood this and reflected it in the Talmud. The first Mishnah that many people study deals with the problem of two people who have a garment in their hands and both say: “It’s mine!” Perhaps the Mishnah should be rewritten and the two characters should say: “No, please, keep it for yourself.” But the sages knew that this ideal world does not exist. What exists is the world of conflict and scarcity.

On the one hand we can contemplate the beauty of the universe. The Artist God achieved his goal. But on the other hand we must continue learning from the Master God. Because his lesson is not over yet.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: David Hartman “From Defender to Critic”,

In the 7th and 8th centuries, the Arabs conquered the Persian Empire, the territories in Asia and North Africa that were part of the Byzantine Empire, and finally the rest of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula. Most of these territories, with the exception of Spain and Sicily, have remained within Islam to this day. At that time, the Jews in the Muslim world were a prosperous community, not much persecuted, economically integrated into their environment, with the self-confidence to adapt to internal and external factors, without fear of assimilating into the world around them.

The strongest Jewish institutions in the Arab Empire at that time were the yeshivot, two in Babylon and one in Eretz Israel. Rabbis were trained there to serve as community administrators, judges, and religious authorities. At first, each of these yeshivot had its own sphere of influence, but in the end, those of the former Persian Empire took over from those of Eretz Israel. Their authority was not only legal but also administrative, as they appointed the heads of each community from among their students. These were called “Nagid” and the heads of the yeshivot, “Gaon.”

What was taught most in the Babylonian academies was religious law based on the Talmud Babli, which took over from the Talmud Jerusalem. The prayer books used throughout the Jewish world also came from these academies. The rabbis of Babylon and those of Eretz Israel recognized each other as religious authorities, however, there were groups that opposed the authority of the Gaon and in general all of Rabbinic Judaism, such as the Karaites, a sect within Judaism that denied the authority of the rabbis and the Talmud, since they only recognized the Torah as the only and true foundation of Judaism.

One of the most influential gaonim was Saadiah ben Yosef (882-942), the Gaon of the Sura yeshivah. Saadiah Gaon left us many writings. He managed to impose the yeshivoth of Babylon over those of Eretz Israel and strongly fought the Karaites, who sought to undermine the authority of the rabbis. In the intellectual sphere, his work represents almost a complete reorganization of Jewish religious knowledge, influenced by the great scholars of Islam.

After Saadiah, the Jewish community in Babylon began to decline and the centers of learning moved to other areas of the Arab empire, such as the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa and Egypt. Great scholars emerged in all three places. Maimonides was one of them.

The Islamic conquerors brought the Arabic language with them. The conquered populations adopted Arabic as their everyday language. The Jews were no exception and used it both to communicate with their Muslim neighbors and to write exceptional scholarly works. For them, speaking and writing in Arabic was not “Chinese.”

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “Merchants and Intellectuals, Rabbis and Poets: Judeo Arabic Culture in the Golden Age of Islam” by Raymond P. Scheindlin.

It is proven that synagogues already existed in the time of the Second Temple, both in Israel and in the Diaspora, and were intended for public prayers. We know this from the writings of Philo of Alexandria and Josephus Flavius, who lived at the end of that time.

The synagogue, as a place of prayer, had a function of its own and was not to replace the Temple in Jerusalem, but rather to complement it. Thus we know that there was a synagogue very close to the Temple itself (Mishnah Yoma 7:1). The main function of the Temple was to provide a place for the Shekhinah (the Manifestation of God in the world) and for offering sacrifices. Occasional public gatherings were also held there to request some Divine favor, and individuals could pray there. However, the Temple building itself did not have a place to host regular public prayer services, in which the entire community participated. This required a special place, the synagogue, for group prayer.

Most of the ancient synagogues were destroyed due to constant religious persecution. We know of their existence from mentions in contemporary books and from archaeological remains. There are ruins of synagogues in Jerusalem and Masada, as well as in other places in the Land of Israel, which date back to the Second Temple period. In Babylon there were two, one in Nehardea (Megillah 29a) and another in the city of Hutzal. They are thought to have been built by the first exiles who were sent to Babylon during the First Temple period. There are also writings and some physical evidence of synagogues built in Egypt in the 3rd century BCE.

There are mentions and archaeological remains of synagogues built in Syria, the Greek Islands, Italy and elsewhere. Important remains of ancient synagogues with mosaic floors have been discovered in Israel, in the Galilee area and elsewhere such as Naaram and Ein Gedi, although these date back to the 3rd century CE.

It is not actually known when the first synagogues were established. It is clear that special places were already designated for meetings to pray and to read the Torah since ancient times. The prophet Jeremiah (39:8) speaks of the “Beit Ha Am”, which some sages interpret as indicating that it was a synagogue. Synagogues were called Mikdash Meat, the small temple, and their design simulated that of the Temple of Jerusalem. For example, instead of the “Kodesh Hakodashim”, the Aron Hakodesh, the cabinet where the Torah scrolls are kept, was placed in front of the synagogue and instead of the altar for sacrifices, the Bimah, the place from which the Torah is now read, was placed.

The transition from making sacrifices in the Temple to praying in a synagogue did not happen abruptly or overnight. It happened gradually over hundreds of years, during which both structures coexisted. In the end, the Temple was destroyed, but the synagogue survived. When was the first synagogue built? Who knows. But it’s good that someone did.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

Initially, the role of the Shaliach Tzibur (the one who leads the prayer) was created out of a practical need that arose when praying in public. Since the prayers were not written down, and many people did not know them by heart, there was a need for someone who was well versed in this subject to lead the prayers. This person was to say them out loud so that others could repeat them after him or could listen to him and answer “Amen” at the end of each blessing. Later, even though many already knew the prayers, the Shaliach Tzibur was needed for those who did not know them. For this reason, it was decreed that after the participants finished silently praying the Amidah, the Shaliach Tzibur had to repeat it out loud. This is the origin of “Hazarat ha Shatz,” the repetition of the Amidah by the Shaliach Tzibur.

The loud repetition of the Amidah was even more important on Jewish holidays, especially on Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur, because there were changes and additions to the Amidah and few people could recite it by heart. However, over time, as it was written down and reproduced in the form of printed books, which were even used to teach the prayers to children, the repetition of the Amidah continued simply as a tradition and no longer as a practical necessity. In his time, Maimonides decided that this repetition should be abolished, since all participants had prayed the Amidah silently. Only in Egypt and a few countries, which respected Maimonides’ authority, did they heed him and stop repeating the Amidah. This did not last long and soon the custom of repeating it was resumed. The repetition of the Amidah had already acquired an additional meaning of complementing and elevating the public prayer. Over time, as people were able to pray from a printed book, the Sheliach Tzibur was chosen from among the congregation and was usually someone who liked to lead the prayers. This role was gradually taken over by certain people who spent more time in the synagogue performing various functions. This individual would soon become the Jazan. Thus, the role of leading the public prayers changed from a mere practical necessity to one of enhancing and beautifying the prayers. People expected the Jazan to have a good voice and to embellish the prayers with beautiful melodies, in addition to becoming the emissary of the congregation’s prayers to God.

In Conservative and Reform synagogues the Amidah is not always repeated aloud. Usually the part containing the first three blessings is said aloud and the rest is said silently. This is also done in Orthodox synagogues on some occasions. Ultimately, leading a prayer is a more intense way of getting closer to God. What do you say, do you want to lead the prayer?

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

The evidence that there have been variations in the format of prayers is very old. At the beginning, in the time of the Mishnah, the text of the prayers was not particularly taken care of. No written version of the prayers is known from that time. Everyone had to know them by heart and this inevitably led to variations in the structure and content of the prayers.

The existence of different versions of the prayers is comparable to the existence of variations in halachic practices. The rabbis said that everyone had to follow the custom of their parents or of the place where they lived. The differences were accepted as long as they did not violate the provisions of Halacha and were given the status of religious “custom.” Rabbi Isaac Luria said that this is why there were twelve different gates to enter Jerusalem, one for each rite.

The changes occurred due to the continuous expulsions and migrations of Jewish communities that dispersed in different directions and took their rite to other communities, sometimes maintaining it, other times adopting the one from the new place and other times creating a new one. Today there are basically 5 different rites (Nusakh) in use: The Ashkenazi Nusaj, the Hasidic Nusaj, the Sephardic Nusaj, the Yemenite Nusaj and the Italian Nusaj. The last two are used only locally.

The Ashkenazi Nusaj is based on the rite established by Rav Amram Gaon, following the customs of Eretz Israel. It seems that a group of Jews left Israel for Italy, from there to France, especially to the Franco-German border and from there to the countries of Eastern Europe. The Ashkenazi rite began in France in the 12th century, when that country was the main center of Judaism in Western Europe. It was consolidated in a more definitive version in Germany, at the time of the Tosafot, the sages who followed Rashi, the great commentator of the Tanakh and the Talmud.

The Hasidic Nusaj, practiced by the students and followers of the Baal Shem Tov, is based on the Ashkenazi Nusaj, but with important changes in the order of the service and with additions and deletions influenced by the Kabbalah of Rabbi Luria. It is distinguished by duplicating many of the prayers, a result of not eliminating texts that were repeated in Rabbi Luria’s changes.

The Eastern or Sephardic Nusaj is derived from that used by the Jews in Spain before their expulsion. Babylon was the origin of the Jews who came to the peninsula through North Africa. The «Golden Age» of Spanish Judaism produced religious poetry of the highest intellectual and literary quality. After the expulsion from Spain, Spanish Jews settled in the Ottoman Empire where they brought their rituals. The increasing influence of Kabbalah in later generations helped spread this Nusach to countries such as Iraq and Persia.

This diversity in rituals enriches the experience of praying. In this respect, too, Judaism is plural. So it is good that they pray differently.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “A Guide To Jewish Prayer” by Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz.

There are countless examples throughout the rabbinic texts where religious leaders took bold stances against what they perceived as morally or socially problematic halachic commandments. One of them was Hillel, one of the most prominent figures of the Mishnah and Talmudic era. Hillel demonstrates a sensitive and courageous personality. Following the spiritual heritage of Abraham, Hillel trusts his own moral judgment and acts accordingly.

Deuteronomy 15:1-3 tells us: “Every seventh year you shall practice the cancellation of debts. …Every creditor shall cancel the debt that he claims from his fellow who owes him…” This verse dictated the cancellation of debts in the Sabbatical year within the Jewish community. The law of “shemitat kesafim” sought to reduce economic dependence between different sectors of Jewish society.

However, what was actually happening in Jewish society was not in keeping with the spirit of the commandment. In the year before the Shemitah, lenders refused to lend money to the needy. A law that was intended to help the needy was actually preventing them from receiving the help they needed.

Hillel realized the problem and devised the mechanism of the “Prozbol.” The Prozbol was a document where the creditor transferred to the judges of the rabbinical court the promissory note specifying a certain debt and they undertook to return the money to its rightful owner after collecting it. (BT Gittin 36a).

Hillel acted spontaneously based on what he saw. He did not wait for reality to conform to lofty ideals nor did he wait for divine or sage permission. Hillel’s understanding of the Prozbol was in keeping with the attitude of the Tanaim, the group of rabbis of the Mishnah, to give an answer according to the circumstances. But this attitude changed with the Amoraim, the rabbis of the Gemarah who were stupefied by Hillel’s interpretation. Later generations of sages were incredulous at Hillel’s audacity. How is it possible that if the Torah ordered that debts be cancelled in the seventh year, Hillel ordered the opposite? The sage Abaye, in the same verse of the Talmud, justified this by saying that Hillel «acted according to the sabbatical year of his time.»

There are still many problematic commandments to be resolved. One is that of the Agunot, those women who for different circumstances cannot remarry. Another is the definition of who is a Jew, which has many variants, depending on the type of Judaism that each one practices. This requires a rabbinic authority with boldness and sensitivity to the circumstances of these times. Another Hillel is needed.

By Marcos Gojman

Bibliography: “From Defender to Critic” by Rabbi David Hartman.

Theologians use different terms to understand the status of the human representation of God. They call them analogies, symbols or more commonly metaphors, in the literal sense of the word that comes from Greek and means to transfer or move. A metaphor is a figure of speech where the common meaning of a word is transferred to another reality and where it can be understood only implicitly. Metaphors abound in our daily language. The lion is “the king of beasts,” we are in the “twilight of our life,” the “market crashed,” they were guilty of “money laundering,” etc. All these words acquire a meaning other than the literal one, according to the context in which they are used.

Maimonides tells us that our way of speaking about God is entirely metaphorical: “That is to say, ‘under his feet’ (Exodus 24:10), ‘written with the finger of God’ (Exodus 31:18), ‘the eyes of God’ (Genesis 38:7)… All of these expressions are adapted to the mental capacity of humanity, which has a clear perception of what a physical body is. The Torah speaks in the language of man, but all of these phrases are metaphorical.” (Mishneh Torah 1:9).

Maimonides is referring to our habitual practice of anthropomorphism, that is, conceiving of God in human form. Just think of Michelangelo’s painting of The Creation in the Sistine Chapel, where an old man (God) touches Adam with his finger. Therefore, we must not forget that these descriptions of God should not be taken literally but metaphorically, and not only in the case of his physical attributes, but also those of his “personality” (another metaphor), as when the prophets tell us that God gets “angry” (Jeremiah 7:19).

Maimonides, a rationalist par excellence, said that it was a heresy to think that God has a body, feelings, and that he behaves like human beings. God is not the one who literally “hears” prayers, “spoke” at Sinai, or “sees” human behavior. All these expressions are man’s way of understanding a reality that transcends human understanding and knowledge.

Thinking and speaking about God is thinking and speaking metaphorically. We must accept this fact and understand its implications. Because speaking with metaphors is when a word can take on any meaning. That is why “You are my sunshine” means more than a ray of light.

By Marcos Gojman.

Bibliography: “The Jewish Approach to God” by Rabbi Neil Gillman.